The Anglo-Saxon Kings Vaught-Jasper-Trusty-Molloy, Genealogy Tree Hadrian's Wall: Walltown Crags, 1997. Built by order of Emperor Hadrian in about 122 AD, the 118 km wall marked the border between Roman-occupied Britain and the 'barbarian Picts'. The Wall was a defensive fortification, with forts at intervals to assist the deployment of Roman troops In the Dark Ages during the fifth and sixth centuries, communities of peoples in Britain inhabited homelands with ill-defined borders. Such communities were organised and led by chieftains or kings. Following the final withdrawal of the Roman legions from the provinces of Britannia in around 408 AD these small kingdoms were left to preserve their own order and to deal with invaders and waves of migrant peoples such as the Picts from beyond Hadrian's Wall, the Scots from Ireland and Germanic tribes from the continent. (King Arthur, a larger-than-life figure, has often been cited as a leader of one or more of these kingdoms during this period, although his name now tends to be used as a symbol of British resistance against invasion.) The invading communities overwhelmed or adapted existing kingdoms and created new ones - for example, the Angles in Mercia and Northumbria. Some British kingdoms initially survived the onslaught, such as Strathclyde, which was wedged in the north between Pictland and the new Anglo-Saxon kingdom of Northumbria. By 650 AD, the British Isles were a patchwork of many kingdoms founded from native or immigrant communities and led by powerful chieftains or kings. In their personal feuds and struggles between communities for control and supremacy, a small number of kingdoms became dominant: Bernicia and Deira (which merged to form Northumbria in 651 AD), Lindsey, East Anglia, Mercia, Wessex and Kent. Until the late seventh century, a series of warrior-kings in turn established their own personal authority over other kings, usually won by force or through alliances and often cemented by dynastic marriages. According to the later chronicler Bede, the most famous of these kings was Ethelberht, king of Kent (reigned c.560-616), who married Bertha, the Christian daughter of the king of Paris, and who became the first English king to be converted to Christianity (St Augustine's mission from the Pope to Britain in 597 during Ethelberht's reign prompted thousands of such conversions). Ethelberht's law code was the first to be written in any Germanic language and included 90 laws. His influence extended both north and south of the river Humber: his nephew became king of the East Saxons and his daughter married king Edwin of Northumbria (died 633). In the eighth century, smaller kingdoms in the British Isles continued to fall to more powerful kingdoms, which claimed rights over whole areas and established temporary primacies: Dalriada in Scotland, Munster and Ulster in Ireland. In England, Mercia and later Wessex came to dominate, giving rise to the start of the monarchy. Throughout the Anglo-Saxon period the succession was frequently contested, by both the Anglo-Saxon aristocracy and leaders of the settling Scandinavian communities. The Scandinavian influence was to prove strong in the early years. It was the threat of invading Vikings which galvanised English leaders into unifying their forces, and, centuries later, the Normans who successfully invaded in 1066 were themselves the descendants of Scandinavian 'Northmen'.

Ecgberht, King of Wessex Born: 775-6 Titles: King of West Wessex. Crowned: c 802 Ruled: Wessex, January 802-July 839, 37 years. Married: Died: c 839. Buried:   Egbert (Ecgberht) is where most chronologies of the kings of England start, chiefly because he was the first West Saxon king to exercise authority over most of England. This is a somewhat biased West Saxon perspective, for although Egbert's descendants went on to become kings of England, Egbert himself exercised no greater authority than some of his predecessors, particularly Offa of Mercia and others claiming the title Bretwalda. Nevertheless, it is with Egbert that the chain of events begins that brings us to a united England. Egbert was the son of Ealhmund, almost certainly the same Ealhmund who was briefly king of Kent in 784. He claimed descent from Ingeld, the brother of Ine of Wessex, and through him back to Cerdic the founder of the West Saxon kingdom, though the authenticity of this descent is dubious. Egbert's birth date is sometimes cited as 775, and it is unlikely that he was born much earlier than that. However, some chroniclers claim that Egbert contended for the throne of Wessex after the murder of Cynewulf in 786, but that Offa's influence gave the kingship to Beorhtric. If Egbert was actively competing at that time he is likely to have been older than eleven, though possibly no more than fifteen or sixteen, which would push his birth year back to 770 or 771. The ASC claims that Egbert spent three years in exile at the court of Charlemagne in Francia, but it is not clear when those three years were. Some have speculated that the ASC (Anglo Saxon Chronicle) is in error and that his exile in Francia lasted for thirteen years. It is difficult to reconcile these dates with the likely chain of events. It seems that after Egbert first contended for the throne in 786 he retreated to the court of Offa. He was a troublesome youth, and Beorhtric believed that all the time Egbert was in England he would be a problem. It was in 789, at the time that Beorhtric was negotiating with Offa over his marriage to Offa's daughter, that Beorhtric suggested Egbert should be handed over to him. Egbert, realising his life might be in peril, prudently left Mercia and probably left England all together. As the son of Ealhmund, whose Kentish ancestry gave him strong Frankish connections, he may have been welcome at the court of Charlemagne even though at that time, Offa had angered Charlemagne by seeking to marry his son to one of Charlemagne's daughters, and Charlemagne broke off all trade relations with England. But it is as likely that Egbert did not go directly to Francia but arrived there after some travels possibly around the year 792. In truth we know little of Egbert's wanderings. At Charlemagne's court he would have encountered other exiled princes, as well as the great scholar and teacher Alcuin, whom Charlemagne had placed in charge of his school in Aachen. Egbert may well have accompanied Charlemagne on some of his campaigns, and he would certainly have learned the science of military tactics as well as the art of kingship. He probably married whilst at Charlemagne's court as his wife is recorded as Eadburh (or Redburga), Charlemagne's sister (or more probably niece) and his first-born Athelwulf was probably born there, around 795. 796 may have been the next milestone in Egbert's life. Alcuin left Aachen and became Abbot of Saint Martin, Tours, and that same year saw the death of Offa. Egbert may have used this as an opportunity to return to Britain and seek to regain his authority. The period between 796 and 799, when Beorhtric eventually restored relations with Cenwulf of Mercia is not well documented, and it is possible that Egbert sought to regain the kingship of Wessex at that time. Even though he was unsuccessful it would have brought him back to the attention of the witan, or council, of Wessex with whom he must have remained in contact. He is very likely to have become involved in the uprising in Kent led by his cousin Eadbert, and may well have remained in Kent until Eadbert was deposed in 798. Egbert may then have returned to France and it is to this final three years that the ASC refers before Egbert was recalled from exile in 802, after the death of Beorhtric, to succeed to the kingdom of Wessex. Even though the ASC is predominantly a West Saxon document produced in the time of Alfred, Egbert's grandson, it is rather surprising that so little is recorded of the early years of Egbert's reign. Considering the later authority that he wielded one might imagine that he spent his early years in conquest, but this does not seem to be the case. One may conjecture from this that Egbert was not readily accepted by all as king and the inter-dynastic squabbles which troubled the West Saxon line for generations may have occupied much of Egbert's initial years as he sought to establish himself. He probably had the support of Charlemagne in this endeavour, and quite possibly the Pope as well. There is no doubt that once Egbert set out on his campaign of conquest, he did it from a firm base, and it would not be surprising that it took him ten years to establish. Egbert needed to re-organize his army so that it could move quickly and lightly, under strong command. He also needed to reorganize his administration so that it could handle the greater demands Egbert would place on it. Primarily he needed to gain the support of the church, and there is little doubt that Egbert developed a strong alliance with Wulfred, the radical archbishop of Canterbury. It is noticeable that Egbert's first bid for power came after Wulfred had visited Rome and gained the support of the pope for his reforms. With a strong archbishop amongst his supporters, and one who rapidly became alienated from Mercia, Egbert had much going for him. It had probably served as a good omen that on the very day Egbert came to power, the ASC records that Athelmund, an ealdorman among the Hwicce of Mercia, invaded Wiltshire at Kempsford and was confronted by Weohstan of Wiltshire. Both ealdormen were killed in the conflict but the West Saxons were triumphant, and this may have been seen as a good sign. Egbert's first strike came in 815 when he decided to ensure that he had only one border on which to advance. In that year he invaded Cornwall and devastated the kingdom, bringing it under his authority. He allowed client kings to rule, and they would take any opportunity to oppose Saxon sovereignty, but to all intents and purposes from 815 the kingdom of Kernow had lost its independence. There were doubtless skirmishes between the Saxons and Cornish over the next ten years but the only one recorded was at Camelford in 825 when Egbert had again to subjugate the Cornish. Perhaps aware that Egbert was engaged in the southwest, Beornwulf, the new king of Mercia, invaded Wessex. The chronicles suggest that Egbert was taken by surprise, but his years of preparation now paid off. The two armies met at Ellendun on the Marlborough Downs in Wiltshire and the victory went to Egbert. Whether planned or not, this seemed to be the opportunity Egbert had waited for, and he capitalised on it with a vengeance. He despatched a large army under the command of his son Athelwolf, ealdorman Wulffierd and Ealhstan, the bishop of Sherborne, into Kent, driving out the local king Baldred. Egbert had claimed his patrimony and avenged his father's death. Surrey and Sussex had submitted to Athelwolf en route, and when Baldred escaped into Essex, the East Saxons rapidly submitted to Athelwolf's army. Athelstan, king of East Anglia, promptly appealed to Athelwulf for support in fighting Mercia and with the aid of the West Saxons, Athelstan gained his freedom from Mercia. It has been suggested that this Athelstan was a son of Egbert, set up to lead the East Angles in their fight for independence. Although unconfirmed it is a tempting theory, because it would explain the otherwise apparent independence of the East Angles during Egbert's reign and beyond. Over the next two years the West Saxons no doubt continued to support the East Angles in their fight against the Mercians. Beornwulf was slain and the kingship of Mercia was in crisis until the emergence of Wiglaf. Egbert invaded Mercia directly in 829 and defeated and deposed Wiglaf Egbert continued with his army of conquest north into Northumbria, but Eanred met and submitted to Egbert at Dore. From 829 Egbert was recognized as bretwalda or overlord and, because his dominion included Cornwall, hitherto unconquered, it is fair to say that Egbert was the first king of all England. Nevertheless, his client kings still exercised considerable authority, and there is some question as to whether Wiglaf's return to power in 830 was as a client to Egbert or whether he had regained control over Mercia. It is likely that after 830 Egbert lost some of his support from the Frankish Empire, due to its internal problems, and this weakened authority allowed Wiglaf to reassert himself, even though nominally accepting Egbert as his overlord. There must have been some agreement between them because in 830 Egbert led an army through Mercia into north Wales to subdue the resurgent Cyngen Ap Cadell. His devastation was so effective that Cyngen may well have been forced to regard Egbert as his overlord, despite Cyngen's recent display of pride in erecting the Pillar of Elisedd in commemoration of his victories. After 830 Egbert's reign was dominated by the raids of the Danes. In 835 the Vikings devastated Sheppey in Kent, and in the following year they landed at Carhampton (or Charmouth) in Devon. Egbert gathered together his army and almost defeated the Danes, but with the dying rays of the sun the Danes turned the battle and Egbert had to admit defeat - the only recorded defeat of his reign. The Danes began to establish themselves in Devon and, by 838, had combined forces with the Cornish to declare an all-out war on the Saxons. Egbert's army was now better prepared. He no doubt had spent the time studying the battle tactics of the Danes. The forces met at Hingston Down, near Callington, on the Devon-Cornwall border, and Egbert inflicted a resounding defeat upon the enemy. It is unlikely that Egbert took a direct part in this battle. He was now in his late sixties, and his earlier defeat may have been an indication of his failing strength. He no doubt planned the battle tactics like an army general, but the army was probably commanded by one of his ealdormen, or possibly his son Athelwulf. Egbert died the following year after a reign of thirty-seven years and seven months, probably in his sixty-ninth year. He was succeeded by Athelwulf. He also had a daughter, Edith (Eadgyth) who became a nun at Polesworth Abbey in Warwickshire.  Egbert, King of Wessex is the 38th great grandfather of the Molloys.

Aethelwulf (r. 839-856) Born: France (probably the court of Charlemagne,Aachen), c795; Title: King of Wessex Crowned: c 839. Ruled: 839-858; 19 years. Married: (1) c 830, Osburh (died c 852), dau. Oslac of Hampshire: 5 children; (2) 1 October 856 at Verberie-sur-Oise, France, Judith (c 843-post 879), dau. Charles the Bald, king of the Franks: no children. Died: 13 January 858, aged about 62. Buried: Steyning (Sussex) but later moved to Winchester Cathedral.   Athelwulf was the son of Egbert, whose subjugation of most of England from 825 onward became the foundation of the future kingdom of England. Although usually listed amongst the kings of England, Athelwulf remained king of Wessex only. These territories incorporated Sussex, Kent and Essex, which Athelwulf had conquered on his father's behalf in 825 and of which Athelwulf was duly appointed sub-king. Athelwulf appointed his brother (or son) Athelstan as sub-king of these territories when he became king of Wessex. However, Athelwulf did not directly rule East Anglia, Mercia or Northumbria, all of which had their own kings who acknowledged Athelwulf as their overlord. Athelwulf's direct ascent to the throne of Wessex was a rare event in the West Saxon kingdom. Over the past three centuries the kingdom had passed either to the next most appropriate local chieftain as confirmed by the council or witan or, in a few cases, by conquest. Wessex had been a fairly loose knit confederacy of smaller kingdoms, and succession did not pass directly from father to son. Egbert's rigorous readministration of the kingdom had ensured his eldest son would inherit and that there would not be the inter-dynastic squabbling that had weakened other kingdoms. The ability to appoint younger sons to sub-kingdoms helped this process. Elsewhere the leading chieftain of the shire became the ealdorman, a position of considerable privilege second only to the king. In Athelwulf's time we find that the ealdormen became of major importance in helping defend the kingdom from the Danes, whose raids increased considerably during the 840s. Athelwulf or his ealdormen succeeded in defeating the Danes on almost every occasion. The raids reached a peak in the years 850/1 when there were three assaults spread across the south. The sequence may not be as the ASC records, but it suggests that first an army landed in Devon which was defeated by the local ealdorman. A further army arrived off the Kent coast near Sandwich, where Athelstan and his ealdormen fought a sea battle, defeating the Danes and capturing nine of their ships. The Danes spent that winter in Thanet. Then, early in 851, a major force arrived in over three hundred ships which sailed up the Thames and attacked inland. It first defeated Beorhtwulf of Mercia and then turned its attention south of the Thames, where it met Athelwulf and his son Athelbald at a place called Acleah, somewhere in Surrey (usually associated with Ockley, though not all authorities agree). If the number of ships is correct (and not miscopied as 350 instead of 35) then the Danish force must have numbered nearly 10,000 men. The ASC notes that this was the greatest slaughter of the Danes that was known up to that time and was evidently a significant battle.   A few years of peace followed, and we may imagine that after the battle of Acleah Athelwulf had agreed some form of peace arrangement with the Danes, or that they sought easier places of conquest. The following year (852) Beorhtwulf of Mercia died, and a new king, Burgred, appeared. He was almost certainly a vassal of Athelwulf's, possibly even one of his ealdormen. At Easter 853, Burgred married Athelwulf's daughter Athelswith, and later that year Athelwulf aided Burgred in his battle against the Welsh where they subjected Cyngen Ap Cadell to a major defeat. Athelwulf's life was soon after tinged with sadness as his wife died, probably at the end of 853 or early 854. By all accounts Athelwulf loved her deeply. The character of this king is somewhat perplexing. Many of the chroniclers recorded his bravery in battle, and there is no reason to doubt that he was anything other than courageous; but he was a very religious man and from his youth had apparently been devoted to the church. He probably accepted his role as king as a consequence of his heritage and his role in battle as a necessary evil, but there is no reason to assume he relished fighting. In 855, even though it is recorded that the Danes had wintered in Sheppey in Kent, and thus still represented a threat, Athelwulf abdicated the throne. He first donated a tenth of his estate to the church, a measure that was bound to endear him to later chroniclers, and then set off on a pilgrimage to Rome with his youngest son Alfred. He left the government of England to his two eldest sons, Athelbald and Athelbert, supported ably by his council of ealdormen. He must have been convinced that he had left England in safe hands. He was himself now approaching sixty and would have been too old to fight. The ASC records that he spent a year in Rome and on his return spent some time at the court of Charles the Bald, king of the Franks, whose daughter Judith he married. This was clearly a political alliance as Judith was no more than thirteen, but it had its repercussions. At the ceremony, the officiating archbishop, Hincmar of Rheims, placed a crown upon Judith's head, thereby making her a queen. This position had been outlawed by the West Saxons sixty years earlier because of the wickedness of Beorhtric's Wife Eadburh. It may have been this action that alienated the ealdormen of Wessex for when Athelwulf returned to England later that year (856) he was welcomed but they would not accept him as king. This has been described as a civil war, but it is unlikely to have been that destructive. Athelwulf almost certainly did not want the rigours of kingship, and was quite happy to retire to Sussex as the sub-king of the Kent, Sussex and Essex territories. He died there some eighteen months later. His rein is also known; for the periods of bad weather connected with the name of his saintly advisor, Swithun. Ethelwulf King of Wessex is the 37th great grandfather of the Molloys.

Aethelbald Born: 831 or 832. First son of Athelwulf. Titles: King of Wessex, Crowned: c 858 Ruled: Wessex, 855-20 December 860. England 2 years. Married: Judith, the daughter of Charles the Bald, King of the Franks. (his father Athelwulf's widow). Died: December 860, Buried: Sherborne Abbey.   Athelbald was the eldest son of Athelwulf (unless the mysterious Athelstan was also Athelwulf's son), and was probably born about the year 831 or 832. He is first mentioned as fighting alongside his father at the battle of Acleah in 851, where they defeated a host of Danes. On his father's abdication in 855, Athelbald became king of Wessex, supported by Ealhstan the bishop of Sherborne, and with his younger brother Athelbert as king of Kent. There is no doubt that Athelbald was a strong and determined king, probably more ambitious than his father, inheriting some of the grit of his grandfather Egbert. When the following year Athelwolf returned, perhaps unexpectedly, from his pilgrimage to Rome, Athelbald refused to concede the kingdom to him, and Athelwolf retired to Kent. After his father's death, Athelbald caused a scandal by marrying his step-mother, Judith, the daughter of Charles the Bald, king of the Franks. Since Judith had been crowned queen, Athelbald may well have believed that this confirmed further authority on his position and upon his likely children. He was twenty-seven and Judith was only fifteen, and there was every likelihood of a long reign and many children. However the church frowned on the marriage and within a year it was annulled. Judith returned to Francia where, six years later, she married Baldwin, count of Flanders. Their son, Baldwin, married Elfreda, the daughter of Alfred the Great. Athelbald lived only another year after this, dying in December 860, probably of an illness. He was buried at Sherborne Abbey. Aethelbald King of Wessex is the 36th great grand uncle of the Molloys. Their common ancestors are Athelwulf King of Wessex and Osburh Queen of Wessex.

Aethelbert Born: Second son Aethelwulf. Titles: Crowned: c 860. Ruled: Kingdom of Wessex. 6 years. Married: Died: c 865-6. Buried: Sherborne Abbey.   Athelbert was the second son of Athelwulf, and succeeded to the sub-kingdom of Kent (which included Essex and Sussex) in 855, when his father abdicated and Athelbald (his elder brother) succeeded to the kingdom of Wessex. It is possible that Athelbert succeeded to the sub-kingdom earlier, whenever their uncle Athelstan died, but there is no record of the date. When Athelwulf returned from Rome in 856, Athelbald refused to concede the kingdom of Wessex, so Athelwulf retired to Kent, where Athelbert seemed more amenable to bow to his father's authority in that land. It was probably no more than a token gesture, as Athelwulf was already in his sixties, and Athelbald now held authority over all of southern England. When Athelbald died in 860 Athelbert succeeded to Wessex and does not seem to have appointed a new sub-king in Kent. During his reign the Danes returned with a vengeance. Sometime soon after his accession a Danish army landed either via the Thames or on the south coast and advanced as far as Winchester before two contingents of Saxons defeated them. Towards the end of his reign a more organized force arrived under the command of Ragnar Lodbrok. His fleet had been harrying the east coast of England, particularly Northumbria, and in the winter of 864/5 they stayed in Thanet. Although the Saxons made a pact with them, the Danes plundered east Kent, before advancing back up the east coast. Athelbert died towards the end of 865 (or possibly early in 866), aged about thirty-two. He was buried at Sherborne Abbey He had not married and was succeeded by his brother Athelred. Athelbert King of Wessex is the 36th great grand uncle of the Molloys. Their common ancestors are Athelwulf King of Wessex and Osburh Queen of Wessex.

Aethelred (1)  Born: c 837 3rd son of Athelwulf.  Titles: King of Wessex,  Crowned:  Ruled: 865 to 871. 5 years.  Married:  Died: c 871.  Buried: Wimborne, Dorset.   Aethelred was the third son of Athelwulf, he was born about the year 837. His father had bequeathed Wessex to Athelred in his will, should Athelbald die childless, but Athelred had probably not expected to become king. He had little time to think about the consequences, for from the start of his reign he was confronted with a series of Danish raids and invasions, which had become considerably more aggressive since the coordinated attacks of Ivarr the Boneless and his brother Halfdan. These two Danes lived in Dublin from where they coordinated their fleet, but they became incensed when their father Ragnar Lodbrok, who had been harrying the eastern coast of Britain for the last year, and had wintered during 865/6 in East Anglia, was killed in York by Aelle. The two brothers now brought all their forces to bear upon England. They conquered York in November 866, rebuffing a counter-attack by Aelle in March 867. Deira became a Viking kingdom (jorvik). The army marched south and occupied Nottingham. Burgred of Mercia sought Athelred's help in dislodging the Danes but this proved impossible, and they were forced to negotiate. The Danes returned to York in 868 and then sailed south to East Anglia in 869, where the local king Edmund was killed. By 870 they were prepared to advance on Wessex. They were now joined by another army under the leadership of Guthrum. This was a major invasion force. If the Danes could conquer Wessex, England would fall to them. The first battle was at Reading, where the Danes occupied a royal villa. The ealdorman Athelwulf, who had bravely fought the Danes on several previous occasions, met them again at Englefield, where he put a raiding party to flight. However, a few days later the Danes caught the Saxons by surprise and Athelwulf was killed. Athelred and his brother Alfred had just arrived at this point and only narrowly escaped. The Saxon forces regrouped at Ashdown in Wiltshire, which was the site of the next engagement. The Saxons celebrated this as a victory, because they killed many of the Danish earls including one of their kings, Bacseg, but the Danes were able to regroup just two weeks later for the battle of Basing, and this time the Danes were victorious. The winter of 870/871 was a harrowing one in England as the Danes sacked and plundered their way through the countryside. The next major engagement was in early 871 at Meredune, believed to be Martin in Hampshire. This was another indecisive battle, with considerable slaughter on both sides, and the advantage going first to the Saxons but ultimately to the Danes. Athelred was seriously injured in the battle and died of his wounds a few weeks later at Witchampton, near Wimborne, where he was buried. The nation had no time for mourning, although the shock of Athelred's death must have reverberated about the kingdom. He had married Wulfrida in 867 or 868 and had two infant sons, but their future looked bleak. As the spring of 871 came to England the fate of the Saxons rested in the hands of one man: the great Alfred. Aethelred King of Wessex is the 36th great grand uncle of the Molloys. Their common ancestors are Athelwulf King of Wessex and Osburh Queen of Wessex.

Alfred the Great Ruled: Wessex, 23 April 871-26 October 899. 28 years.   Born: Wantage (?), c 848; Fourth son of Athelwulf. Titles: Crowned: c 871 Ruled: Wessex, 23 April 871-26 October 899. 28 years. Married: c 868, Ealhswith (d.902) of Mercia - 5 children. Died: Winchester (?), 26 October 899, aged 52(?). Buried: Winchester.   Alfred is certainly the best known of the West Saxon kings, much of what we think we know about him is myth created by later writers in veneration of the saviour of the Saxons who alone held back the onslaught of the Danes and who established a period of prosperity in England. In that sense he shares something of the role in folk memory of king Arthur. Alfred was also a man of learning and did much to establish a history and chronology of his time, and was responsible for starting (or reforming) the ASC, but that does not mean we have to trust everything that was written about him at the time. This includes his Life written by Bishop Asser which some claim to be a forgery and which certainly has many anomalies. Contrary to our image of him as a strong and valiant king, he was something of a hypochondriac, being struck down with or threatened by mystery diseases, and a long sufferer of piles. Alfred was the fourth son and fifth child of Athelwolf. His mother is recorded as Osburh, though he may have been the son of a second, unknown, marriage as there is a gap of several years between Alfred's birth and those of his elder brothers. Alternatively Alfred may have been older than we are led to believe, a point which may be attested by his ill health in his final years. Little is known of his childhood as the youngest son with three elder brothers he was not thought likely to become king - so even the place of his birth is not certain. Asser's reference to Wantage is generally accepted but not definite, and somewhere like Wimborne is more probable. It is also unlikely that, as a child, Alfred was sent to Rome on his own and consecrated by the pope as future king. It is likely that he accompanied his father on his pilgrimage to Rome from 854-855 and spent some time at the court of Charles the Bald, king of the Franks. Alfred became fascinated with the Frankish world, the court of the descendants of Charlemagne, and modelled his own court on it, which included his passion for scholarship. Alfred was probably being groomed for the church, as his father was intensely religious. Although Alfred's name begins to appear on authenticated charters around the year 861, he does not step onto the stage of history until around 865 and 866 when we find him in harness with his brother Athelred in battle against the Danes who had been harrying England for decades but were now showing greater strength of arms. At best Athelred and Alfred held the Danes at bay, but in 871 Athelred died of wounds and, though he had two infant sons, it was Alfred who was declared successor. Alfred had already proved his battle prowess, particularly at Ashdown in 870, but there was no time to celebrate his succession - there is no record of his coronation, despite the claim that he was crowned at Kingston upon Thames. Within a month of his succession Alfred was in pitched battle with the Danes at Wilton, a day which Alfred thought he had won but the wiliness of the Danes with a false retreat caught the English off guard. Battle followed battle that first year, the outcomes swinging both ways till, at the end of the year, Alfred bought peace with the Danes. The Danes settled north of the Thames, where peace was also bought with the Mercians, and for a period Alfred could consolidate his army. It was also during this time that Alfred began to develop a navy in order to meet the Danes on their own terms. In 876 a new generation of Danish warrior leaders, of whom the most significant was Guthrum, began further incursions into Wessex. His army descended on Alfred's camp at Wareham, but Alfred was prepared and defeated the Danes, buying extra time. The Danes also suffered defeat in a naval campaign off the coast at Swanage, but in the winter of 878 they caught the English by surprise at Chippenham, taking over the royal court, and forcing the English to flee into the surrounding marshes at Athelney, in Somerset. It is to this period that belong the legends of Alfred burning the cakes and disguising himself as a harper to spy in the camp of Guthrum. Other Danish forces were called to the area, including a Danish fleet established in the Bristol Channel, endeavouring to blockade Alfred. However, Alfred's forces in Devon defeated the fleet and then, with his local knowledge, Alfred was able to outwit the Danes and led his army out of Atheiney to Selwood. There he strengthened his forces, marched on the Danes and defeated them at the battle of Ethandune (probably Edington). The Danes submitted and, more significantly, Guthrum agreed to be baptized a Christian. Peace was declared with the treaty of Wedmore. The next eight years, 878-885, were a period of peace in Wessex. It was now that Alfred became regarded by all the Saxons of England as their overlord, but he was never king of all England, as the Danes still held the greater part of the north and east. He spent this period reviewing the administration, fortification and legal system of the Saxons. He created a series of twenty-five fortified boroughs around his kingdom, such as Oxford and Hastings, and extensively refortified London. He developed seats of learning across southern England, and introduced his law code, extensively revising that of Ine. This code was administered by a number of local reeves (or sheriffs) and judges, and Alfred reviewed their activities in his own series of visits. This forced the local administrators to read to ensure the books were properly kept. Alfred also decreed that all the sons of freemen should learn to read and write, firstly in English and, for those destined for high office, in Latin. Apart from a brief skirmish with the Danes in 885, peace held until 893 when another war with the Danes of East Anglia erupted and lasted until 897. The Danes caused havoc across Mercia and into Wales, but were unable to penetrate the fortifications of Wessex. Alfred re-organized the navy into a major fleet, for which he is remembered as the father of the English navy. Alfred's strength eventually drained the Danish vitality and their army faded away. Although they would return again and again, Alfred had established a kingdom which, for the next few decades, was invincible. Alfred had married in around 868 at a time when he had not expected to become king. His wife, Ealhswith, was the daughter of a Mercian nobleman and, through her mother, descended from the Mercian royal line, so that Alfred's sons could claim the royal blood of both Wessex and Mercia. He had five children (possibly six; one may have died in infancy) including Athelfleda, who became the Lady of the Mercians, and Elfreda, who married Baldwin, count of Flanders, whose mother was Judith, Alfred's own stepmother. From Elfreda was descended Matilda, who became the wife of William I. Alfred was succeeded by his son Edward. In later centuries, when Alfred earned the epithet "the Great", it was not solely because he held the Saxon nation together against the Danes, but because he improved the strength, culture and quality of his realm. Although this golden age also owed something to his son and grandson, Alfred was truly the most impressive of the Saxon kings. Alfred "The Great" King of England is the 39th great grandfather of the Molloys. HISTORIC ROYAL SPEECHES AND WRITINGS The British Monarchy web site [http://www.royal.gov.uk] ALFRED ‘THE GREAT’ (r. 871-899) At the age of 38, Alfred learnt to read and write in Latin as well as English. This passage is prompted by his translation in the 890s of 'De Consolatione Philosophiae' (Consolations of Philosophy) by the Roman philosopher Boethius. (Bracketed passages are Boethius' words, the rest are Alfred's own.) [You know that I never greatly delighted in covetousness and the possession of earthly power, nor longed for this authority], but I desired instruments and materials to carry out the work I was set to do, which was that I should virtuously and fittingly administer the authority committed to me. Now no man, as you know, can get full play for his natural gifts, nor conduct and administer government, unless he has fit tools, and the raw material to work upon. By material I mean that which is necessary to the exercise of natural powers; thus a king's raw material and instruments of rule are a well-peopled land, and he must have men of prayer, men of war, and men of work. As you know, without these tools no king may display his special talent. Further, for his materials he must have means of support for the three classes above spoken of, which are his instruments; and these means are land to dwell in, gifts, weapons, meat, ale, clothing, and what else soever the three classes need. Without these means he cannot keep his tools in order, and without these tools he cannot perform any of the tasks entrusted to him. [I have desired material for the exercise of government that my talents and my power might not be forgotten and hidden away], for every good gift and every power soon grows old and is no more heard of, if Wisdom be not in them. Without Wisdom no faculty can be fully brought out, for whatsoever is done unwisely can never be accounted as skill. To be brief, I may say that it has ever been my desire to live honourably while I was alive, and after my death to leave to them that should come after me my memory in good works. Alfred "The Great" King of Englandis the 39th great grandfather of the Molloys.

Edward the Elder Born: c 871 or 872. son of Alfred. Titles: King of the West Saxons. Crowned: Kingston-upon-Thames, 8 June 900. Ruled: 26 October 899-17 July 924. 26 years. Married: (1) c894 (though date unknown), Egwina (d. c9Ol) "a noblewoman": 3 children; (2) c9Ol/2, Elfleda (d. 920), dau. ealdorman Athelhelm: 10 children; (3) c920 Edgiva (905-968), dau. Sigehelm, ealdorman of Kent. 5 children. Edward may also have had an illegitimate child. Died: Farndon-on-Dee, 17 July 924, aged about 52. Buried: Winchester Cathedral.   Edward the Elder was the second son of Alfred the Great and was born about 871. His elder brother, Edmund, apparently died in infancy, though one tradition asserts he lived long enough to be crowned as heir apparent. In any case, the choice of his first two sons' names demonstrate Alfred's hopes for them. Both names mean 11 protector" (mund) or "guardian" (ward) of "riches", showing that Alfred hoped his sons would guard the prosperity of the nation for the future. Edward grew up firmly believing this. He was a soldier from childhood, not a scholar like his father and grandfather, and he knew, once his brother died, that it was in his hands that the future of the nation rested. He was a child throughout the wars that his father waged with the Danes, and they would have left a vivid impression on his mind. When the Danish problems arose again in 892 and 893 he commanded part of the army that captured the raiders. The Saxons were therefore already accustomed to him as their leader. However, after his father's death his succession did not go unchallenged. His nephew, Athelwold, the son of Athelred, was dissatisfied with the terms of Alfred's will and felt dispossessed. He seized Wimborne manor and, though he was soon chased out of Wessex, he was accepted by the Danes and Angles of York as their leader and subsequently led a revolt amongst the Danes of East Anglia. He remained a thorn in Edward's side until he was defeated and killed in 902, after which Edward was able to seal a peace treaty with the Danes of the east. However the Danes of the north still defied Edward's sovereignty, ruling jorvik as a separate Danish kingdom. Throughout 909 the Danes tested Edward's resolve with a number of border raids and skirmishes, and eventually Edward moved against them, raising a vast army. Edward harried Northumbria with little result. The following year he was tricked by the Danish fleet moving down the east coast, while the main Danish army moved across Northumbria and down into Mercia. Edward realised his error and chased the Danes, catching them at Tettenhall in August 910, where he inflicted upon them one of their most crushing defeats, resulting in the deaths of the two Danish kings Halfdan and Eowils. It was the end of the Danish hold on Jorvik, although soon after the Norse under Ragnall moved in. The Norse had been expelled from Dublin in 902 and were now landless. They first caused a nuisance in Wales and Scotland, but by 9 1 0 had become bold enough to enter Northumbria, and no sooner had Edward defeated one foe than another arrived. Rather than take them on instantly, Edward decided to work on one plan at a time. Since 905 Edward had been refortifying England. He rebuilt Chester and, along with his sister, Athelfled of Mercia, established a chain of fortified towns along the border with the Danelaw, including Runcorn, Tamworth, Stafford, Warwick, down to Hertford and over to Witham in Essex. Even before these forts were finished Edward was able to use them as a base to defeat a major Danish army which moved across England into Wales in 914, but no matter where the army tried to inflict major destruction, Edward was there, and the army eventually moved out of Britain at the end of the year' Most of the forts were completed by 915, and Edward progressively advanced into Danish territory. The Danes responded and from 916 on a series of skirmishes occurred across middle England. In almost all cases the English were victorious, with major successes at Leicester, Nottingham and Bedford. Early on the Danish king, Guthrum II, was killed, and thereafter there was no coordinated strategy from the Danes. Edward was able to pick off small bands of men one at a time. Eventually the Danes submitted. The year 920 saw the Danes of East Anglia and the Five Boroughs submitting to him. In 918, during the war with the Danes, Athelfloed had died, and though her daughter Elfwynn technically succeeded, Edward could not consider a young girl in charge during such a difficult period. Thus in 919 he assumed direct control over Mercia. With similar authority over the Danes of the east midlands, Edward now ruled over half of England. The Welsh princes, Idwal Foel, Clydog Ap Cadell and Hywel Dda, submitted to him, recognizing Edward as their overlord, for all that they remained sovereign princes. Even in the north, Edward's authority was recognized, though this was rather more tenuous. Ragnall of York had tried to goad the Danes into further revolt but by 920 they recognized that Edward was the victor. Ragnall realised his subterfuge would not succeed and recognized Edward as overlord; but his successor, Sitric, did not. This must have alarmed Constantine II of Scotland and Donald Mac Aed of Strathclyde, both of whom had suffered from the Norse and now felt that they needed Edward's protection by acknowledging his supremacy. Thus, by the year 922, Edward was overlord of all of Britain except for the Norse settlements of York, Orkney and the Western Isles. It was a remarkable achievement for a man whose boyhood had been spent in hiding from the Danes. Edward was a fitting son of Alfred and it was important that a strong king followed him to maintain and build upon his successes. Athelstan was such a king. Edward was married at least three times, though the legitimacy of the first is in question. Of his many children, most were daughters, but of the sons who survived him, all of them - Edwin, Elfweard, Athelstan, Edmund and Eadred – succeeded him in some form within the kingdom. Edward I "The Elder" King of England is a 38th great grandfather of the Molloys.

Aelfweard Born: Titles: Crowned: Ruled: Married: Died: Oxford, (May have been murdered). Buried: Winchester.   Aelfweard (Elfweard) was the third surviving son of Edward the Elder, and some sources suggest that he was elected the heir to the throne of Wessex by the witan. If this is so, then it was a strange choice, as Elfweard had been a bookish boy. He had been born sometime around the year 904 and was supposed to be a hermit in Bridgnorth. If he was elected, he had little chance to assume the crown. He died - there is a suggestion that he may have been murdered, perhaps at the suggestion of his brother Athelstan - sixteen days later at Oxford, presumably on his way back to Winchester, where he was buried. Aelfweard (Elfweard) King of England is the 37th great grand uncle of the Molloys.

Athelstan Born: c 895. Titles: King of the English. Crowned: Kingston-upon Thames, 4 September 925. Ruled: July 924 October 939. 14 years. Married: Died: Gloucester, 27 October 939, aged 44. Buried: Malmesbury Abbey, Wiltshire.   Athelstan, arguably the most powerful of all Saxon kings, was the eldest son of Edward the Elder, though there is a question about his legitimacy. Edward may not have married Athelstan's mother Egwina, and though she was later described as “a noblewoman”, the scandal -mongers of the day remembered her as a shepherd's daughter whom Edward took a fancy to in his youth and who bore him two or perhaps three children. Maybe it was because he was illegitimate that Athelstan was raised by Edward's sister, Athelfled, at her court at Gloucester in Mercia and not at Winchester. Some authorities make much of the fact that Athelstan was a favourite of his grandfathers, Alfred, as if he preferred this child over the others and singled him out for succession; in fact Athelstan was the only grandchild Alfred knew, as all of Alfred's other grandchildren were born after his death. Nevertheless, because Athelstan was reared in Mercia he had a loyalty from the Mercians that his forebears had never received. When Edward died, the Mercians immediately proclaimed him their king whilst the West Saxon witan were still deliberating. No doubt, if Athelstan was illegitimate, there was an issue to resolve, and possibly Edward had suggested before his death that Athelstan would succeed him in Mercia whilst one of his legitimate sons would succeed in Wessex. Edwin was already sub king in Kent and the obvious choice but perhaps he declined (or, if his recorded death date is in error, he may have already been dead). There is a suggestion that Elfweard the hermit was summoned to Winchester as a possible candidate, but he died en route, and thereafter there was no other choice but Athelstan, but he was not confirmed in Wessex until some months after his accession in Mercia. Even then he was not crowned for over a year. Just what the reluctance was amongst the West Saxons is not clear, and it may be that they just did not trust Athelstan. There is no doubt that Athelstan's strength of character may also have been a disadvantage, because he had a distrust for the Saxon nobility whom he treated with reserve, and they probably saw him as haughty and unwelcoming. Yet to his subjects he was kind and generous, perhaps because of his own origins. He was exceedingly generous to the church and delighted in giving gifts and receiving memorabilia. Like Arthur he was an avid reader but also a collector of treasures he later donated to the church. He was a tall, if thin, man with long golden hair and conveyed the image of a handsome, powerful knight. It may be something of Athelstan who lives on in our folk memory of Sir Lancelot. No sooner was Athelstan ensconced as king than we find his authority recognized by Sitric Caech of York, the Norse king who had refused to recognize Edward's sovereignty. Sitric recognized that Athelstan's power base in Mercia gave him a much greater ability to attack Northumbria if necessary. Sitric and Athelstan thus agreed terms and as part of the arrangement Sitric was married to Athelstan's saintly sister Eadgyth on 30 January 926. The alliance with Sitric did not last for long, as he refused to accept Christianity, and by March 927 he was dead. Athelstan seized this opportunity. Sitric's brother, Gothfrith, who was king of Dublin, attempted to claim the throne of York, but Athelstan defeated him and, after showing him hospitality, despatched him back to Ireland. During this episode Athelstan summoned the kings of Scotland and Strathclyde to Eamont Bridge in July 927 and made them swear that they would not support Gothfrith in his designs upon the throne of York. Athelstan entered York, the first Saxon king to do so, since all previous kings before the Scandinavians had been Angles. During 926 Athelstan had summoned the Welsh princes to a meeting at Hereford. Although the three primary rulers had previously paid homage to Edward, there had been a Norse uprising in 924 supported by the Welsh at Chester. Athelstan was determined to put a stop to Welsh hostilities in Mercia. At Hereford he laid down the boundary between Wales and England, particularly the southern stretch which had always been in dispute, where he now specified the Wye, and he exacted harsh tribute from the princes. It is not clear how far they ever met this demand, but it was evident that they recognized Athelstan's authority. Hywel Dda in particular was fascinated by the Saxon court, appreciating its possibilities in Wales, and he learned much from Athelstan that he was able to put into practice. Immediately after this agreement, Athelstan hurried to Devon where the Cornish were again in revolt, probably under their king Hoel. Athelstan expelled the Cornish from Exeter. Driving them back over the Tamar, which now became the boundary between Cornwall and England. He refortified Exeter and it seems he may have taken Hoel hostage to ensure the Cornish compliance, because Hoel was with him a year later at Eamont Bridge. The alliance with the Scots lasted for seven years, a remarkable period of peace and prosperity in England during which time Athelstan reviewed his troops, improved his fortifications and generally settled down to the government of his subjects. It seems that Athelstan also made friends with the king of Norway, Harald Fairhair or Finehair, who sent gifts to Athelstan and also adopted the current vogue for fostering by sending his son, Haakon, then aged about seven, to Athelstan's court to benefit from understanding the English form of government. One consequence of this was that Haakon became such a welcome king in Norway that the elders deposed his brother, Erik Bloodaxe, who immediately became a problem for Athelstan's successors. This was but one example of Athelstan's role in Europe. Because of a series of political marriages amongst his aunts and his own sisters, Athelstan was on close terms with many of the major rulers in Europe. These included Count Baldwin of Flanders, who had married his aunt Elfreda, Charles III of France, who had married his sister Edgiva, the influential Hugh, Count of Paris, who had married another sister, Edhilda, and Otto, duke of Saxony and subsequently German emperor, who had married a further sister, Eadgyth. There was another possible half-sister who married Gorm the Old, the first king of a united Denmark. All of this demonstrates that Athelstan was a key activist on the international scene, and though it is not recorded that he travelled abroad, his relationships improved trade and culture in England extensively. In 934 Athelstan was incensed when the Scottish king Constantine married his daughter to Olaf Gothfrithson of Dublin, which Athelstan saw as a flagrant breach of the Eamont treaty. He decided to give Constantine a lesson and in 934 he raised a huge army, which increased in numbers as he marched north from Winchester, and he devastated Scotland en route as far north as Fordun. Constantine recognized Athelstan's power, but it only made him all the more determined to seek the support of Olaf as a defence against the English might. In 937, after the death of Gothfrith, Olaf combined his army with Constantine's. He took York and marched down into Mercia. Athelstan met him at Brunanburh, near Nottingham. It was one of the most decisive of all Saxon victories, and passed into legend. From then until his death two years later Athelstan ruled peacefully, the complete master of his realm. Athelstan's reign was remembered by later annalists as a golden age, and certainly there would be little like it again for many years to come. Athelstan died of an illness, probably a manifestation of the same malady, which afflicted his family, many of whom died young. He was only forty-four. Athelstan had never married, and he was succeeded by his half-brother Edmund. Athelstan King of England is the 37th great grand uncle of the Molloys.

Edmund (I) The Elder Ruled: 27 October 939-26 May 946. 7 years. Born: c 871 or 872. son of Alfred. Titles: King of the West Saxons. Crowned: Kingston-upon-Thames, 8 June 900. Ruled: 26 October 899-17 July 924. 26 years. Married: (1) c894 (though date unknown), Egwina (d. c9Ol) "a noblewoman": 3 children; (2) c9Ol/2, Elfleda (d. 920), dau. ealdorman Athelhelm: 10 children; (3) c920 Edgiva (905-968), dau. Sigehelm, ealdorman of Kent. 5 children. Edward may also have had an illegitimate child. Died: Farndon-on-Dee, 17 July 924, aged about 52. Buried: Winchester Cathedral.   Edward the Elder was the second son of Alfred the Great and was born about 871. His elder brother, Edmund, apparently died in infancy, though one tradition asserts he lived long enough to be crowned as heir apparent. In any case, the choice of his first two sons' names demonstrate Alfred's hopes for them. Both names mean 11 protector" (mund) or "guardian" (ward) of "riches", showing that Alfred hoped his sons would guard the prosperity of the nation for the future. Edward grew up firmly believing this. He was a soldier from childhood, not a scholar like his father and grandfather, and he knew, once his brother died, that it was in his hands that the future of the nation rested. He was a child throughout the wars that his father waged with the Danes, and they would have left a vivid impression on his mind. When the Danish problems arose again in 892 and 893 he commanded part of the army that captured the raiders. The Saxons were therefore already accustomed to him as their leader. However, after his father's death his succession did not go unchallenged. His nephew, Athelwold, the son of Athelred, was dissatisfied with the terms of Alfred's will and felt dispossessed. He seized Wimborne manor and, though he was soon chased out of Wessex, he was accepted by the Danes and Angles of York as their leader and subsequently led a revolt amongst the Danes of East Anglia. He remained a thorn in Edward's side until he was defeated and killed in 902, after which Edward was able to seal a peace treaty with the Danes of the east. However the Danes of the north still defied Edward's sovereignty, ruling jorvik as a separate Danish kingdom. Throughout 909 the Danes tested Edward's resolve with a number of border raids and skirmishes, and eventually Edward moved against them, raising a vast army. Edward harried Northumbria with little result. The following year he was tricked by the Danish fleet moving down the east coast, while the main Danish army moved across Northumbria and down into Mercia. Edward realised his error and chased the Danes, catching them at Tettenhall in August 910, where he inflicted upon them one of their most crushing defeats, resulting in the deaths of the two Danish kings Halfdan and Eowils. It was the end of the Danish hold on Jorvik, although soon after the Norse under Ragnall moved in. The Norse had been expelled from Dublin in 902 and were now landless. They first caused a nuisance in Wales and Scotland, but by 9 1 0 had become bold enough to enter Northumbria, and no sooner had Edward defeated one foe than another arrived. Rather than take them on instantly, Edward decided to work on one plan at a time. Since 905 Edward had been refortifying England. He rebuilt Chester and, along with his sister, Athelfled of Mercia, established a chain of fortified towns along the border with the Danelaw, including Runcorn, Tamworth, Stafford, Warwick, down to Hertford and over to Witham in Essex. Even before these forts were finished Edward was able to use them as a base to defeat a major Danish army which moved across England into Wales in 914, but no matter where the army tried to inflict major destruction, Edward was there, and the army eventually moved out of Britain at the end of the year' Most of the forts were completed by 915, and Edward progressively advanced into Danish territory. The Danes responded and from 916 on a series of skirmishes occurred across middle England. In almost all cases the English were victorious, with major successes at Leicester, Nottingham and Bedford. Early on the Danish king, Guthrum II, was killed, and thereafter there was no coordinated strategy from the Danes. Edward was able to pick off small bands of men one at a time. Eventually the Danes submitted. The year 920 saw the Danes of East Anglia and the Five Boroughs submitting to him. In 918, during the war with the Danes, Athelfloed had died, and though her daughter Elfwynn technically succeeded, Edward could not consider a young girl in charge during such a difficult period. Thus in 919 he assumed direct control over Mercia. With similar authority over the Danes of the east midlands, Edward now ruled over half of England. The Welsh princes, Idwal Foel, Clydog Ap Cadell and Hywel Dda, submitted to him, recognizing Edward as their overlord, for all that they remained sovereign princes. Even in the north, Edward's authority was recognized, though this was rather more tenuous. Ragnall of York had tried to goad the Danes into further revolt but by 920 they recognized that Edward was the victor. Ragnall realised his subterfuge would not succeed and recognized Edward as overlord; but his successor, Sitric, did not. This must have alarmed Constantine II of Scotland and Donald Mac Aed of Strathclyde, both of whom had suffered from the Norse and now felt that they needed Edward's protection by acknowledging his supremacy. Thus, by the year 922, Edward was overlord of all of Britain except for the Norse settlements of York, Orkney and the Western Isles. It was a remarkable achievement for a man whose boyhood had been spent in hiding from the Danes. Edward was a fitting son of Alfred and it was important that a strong king followed him to maintain and build upon his successes. Athelstan was such a king. Edward was married at least three times, though the legitimacy of the first is in question. Of his many children, most were daughters, but of the sons who survived him, all of them - Edwin, Elfweard, Athelstan, Edmund and Eadred – succeeded him in some form within the kingdom. Edmund I "The Magnificent" King of England is the 34th great grandfather of the Molloys.

Eadred Born: c 923. Titles: King of the English, Crowned: Kingston-upon-Thames, 16 August 946. Ruled: 26 May 946-23 November 955. 9 years Married: Died: Frome, Somerset, 23 November 955, aged 32. Buried: Winchester Cathedral.   Although Eadred was a physically weak king, almost unable to eat his food, he was every bit the warrior like his brothers Edmund and Athelstan and his father Edward (the Elder). Most of his short reign was involved with the Norse kingdom of York. Edmund had ejected the Norse kings and brought York under his control. At the start of his reign Eadred travelled north and sought the fealty of Wulfstan, the archbishop of York, and of York's witan (council). Although they professed loyalty, within a few months they had appointed the Norse adventurer, Erik Bloodaxe, as their king. Eadred regarded this as treachery and immediately raised an army and invaded Northumbria. He avoided attacking York but instead laid waste to the surrounding lands. On his return to Mercia his rearguard was attacked by Norse troops. Eadred was livid. His weak constitution had nevertheless created a man of iron will, vicious temper and little patience. His troops turned back on York and Eadred threatened to destroy the kingdom. The elders of York knew he was capable of it and they agreed to eject Erik. Satisfied, Eadred returned to Wessex. However, within months the former king of York, Olaf Sitricson, returned and was re-installed. Rather than inflict another invasion Eadred bargained with Olaf, prepared to let him remain provided he patrolled the shores against other Norse and Danish pirates, particularly Erik Bloodaxe. The people of York did not seem to know what they wanted, and the internal politics of Wulfstan's party were becoming intolerable. In 952 Wulfstan ejected Olaf and brought Erik back into power. Infuriated Eadred invaded York in 954. Wulfstan was imprisoned. Erik was expelled, and on his way back to Orkney he was slain. The English, Norse and Danes of York readily accepted Eadred as their king and the Scandinavian kingdom of Jorvik was at an end. Eadred ruled it directly, whilst he allowed Oswulf a high degree of autonomy in ruling Bernicia as an earl. With the final expulsion of the Norse kings, Eadred could justifiably be called king of all the English. Like his brother, though, he would not live to enjoy his glory. He died in November 955, aged only 32 or so. Despite his valour in battle he was a strongly religious man, suffering his pains with piety. He apparently never married and after his death the throne passed to his even weaker nephews, Edwy and Edgar. Eadred King of England is the 37th great grand uncle of the Molloys

Eadwig Born: c 941. Titles: King of the English, Crowned: Kingston-upon-Thames 26 January 956. Ruled: 23 November 955-1 October 959. 4 years. Married: c 957,Elgiva (descendant of Athelred I) (d 959): annulled, no children. Died: Gloucester, I October 959, aged 18. Buried: Winchester Cathedral.   Edwy or Eadwig all-fair was the eldest son of Edmund I and with the untimely death of Eadred he ascended the throne at the age of only fourteen. The ASC states that Edwy succeeded to Wessex and his brother Edgar succeeded to Mercia and Northumbria, but as Edgar was almost two years Edwy's junior, his succession was held in abeyance until he was older. In effect the two kings, and particularly Edwy, were advised by a strong council, which included Dunstan, the abbot of Glastonbury. Since these two were as headstrong as each other, and as intransigent, it led to considerable personal conflict. Edwy's relationship with Dunstan started poorly apparently at his coronation Edwy disappeared from the council and was found consorting with a young lady - and got worse. Edwy could not work with Dunstan and had him banished from England in 957. All of Edwy's reign seemed to be a jockeying for position between himself and his council of elders, most of whom had the upper hand. Edwy himself never achieved anything. He married his childhood sweetheart, Elgiva, but this was annulled within a year on the grounds of consanguinity - they were third cousins. It suggests that the elders, particularly Oda, the archbishop of Canterbury, did not want Edwy to father children, perhaps because of the continuing problem of health or, more likely, because these would threaten his brother's right to the throne, and it seems that by 959 the elders were now firmly behind Edgar. It thus may have come as a relief when Edwy died in October 959. He was only eighteen, and it has usually been accepted that he died of the inherent family malady, but the growing opposition to him may suggest he was helped on his way. Most of the churchmen who wrote Edwy's obituaries had less than fond memories of him, but his brother-in-law, who became Athelweard the Chronicler, believed he was much misunderstood. It was Athelweard who called Edwy "All-Fair", or "the Fair", a word which in Saxon did not just refer to his fair complexion, but which also meant pleasant and mild-mannered. Edwy comes across the centuries as an uncertain king trapped in a weak body surrounded by officialdom, knowing he could not live up to the glory of his forebears, but unable to find consolation, other than with his wife and mother-in-law. He was a sad and tragic king. Edwy "The Fair", King of England is the 33rd great grand uncle of the Molloys. Their common ancestors are Edmund I "The Magnificent" King of England and Elgiva Queen off England.

Edgar "The Peaceful" Born: c 943. Titles: King of the English, Crowned: Bath Abbey, 11 May 973. Ruled: I October 959-8 July 975 (he was appointed king of Mercia and Northumbria from 957). 16 years. Married: (1) c 960, Athelfleda, dau.Ordmaer, ealdorman of Hertford: either divorced c 961 or died c 961 or c 964: I son; (2) c 964, Elfrida (c 945-c 1002), dau. Ordgar, ealdorman of Devon, and widow of Athelwald, ealdorman of East Anglia: 2 children. Also had at least one illegitimate child. Died: Winchester, 8 July 975, aged 32. Buried: Glastonbury Abbey.   The Saxon name Eadgar means "rich in spears" (Eadgar the Peaceable), which was undoubtedly recognition of his inheritance of military power. When Edgar's uncle Eadred died in 955, his brother Edwy became king in Wessex whilst Edgar was appointed to the kingship of Mercia and Northumbria. He was only twelve at the time and did not assume full authority until he was about fifteen, by which time he was welcomed, as Edwy was a weak and unpopular king. Edgar had been raised in East Anglia, in the household of Athelstan, the caldorman of the old territory of the Danelaw, which covered all of East Anglia and Danish Mercia. As such Edgar was already a popular prince amongst the middle-English and Danes and was readily accepted as king, whereas Edwy was seen as a weak and troublesome youth. By November 957 the Mercians and Northumbrians had renounced their allegiance to Edwy. Both kings were advised (or controlled) by a strong council, which had led to conflict with Edwy who had expelled bishop Dunstan. When Edgar came of age he recalled Dunstan and was enthusiastic about his ideas for reforming the English church. When Edwy died in October 959, Edgar also became king of Wessex and as the archbishopric of Canterbury was vacant with the recent death of Oda, Dunstan was appointed to that see. With the support of the king, Dunstan introduced a major programme of monastic reform, not all of which was happily accepted at the time, but which brought Saxon England in line with developments on the continent. All secular clergy were ejected, and the church officials were granted considerable independence from the crown. The most extreme of these was the creation of the soke of Peterborough, where the abbot of St Peters had almost total independence. Many of the monasteries that had been destroyed during the Danish invasions were restored. It was only a period of peace that could allow such rebuilding and change. Edgar, for all that he was not a soldier or strategist to match his father or grandfather, was able to work alongside strong and well organized ealdormen in governing the kingdom and in ensuring its safety. All the time England seemed in capable hands, the Norse and Danes bided their time. In 973 Edgar gave a demonstration of authority. Although he probably had a formal coronation when he became king of Wessex, Dunstan believed there was a need for a major ceremony similar to those of the King of the Franks and the German Emperor. The ceremony was delayed for some years because Dunstan was unhappy with Edgar's dissolute life. For all he supported the church reform Edgar was not a particularly religious man. There were rumours about his private life, which may have some base of truth. He had married a childhood friend, Athelfleda, early in life, but it seems that either she died in childbirth around the year 961 or the two became separated because of Edgar's amorous adventures with Wulfryth. Stories were later attached to the episode that Edgar had seduced a nun, but although Wulfryth later became a nun, the real story seems to be that he fell in love with a lady who bore him a child, but she either chose to enter (or was banished to) a nunnery and they probably never married. Edgar then became romantically entangled with Elfrida, who was already married, and again the scandalmongers hinted that the two might have planned the murder of her husband, Edgar's onetime foster-brother Athelwald in 964, in order to marry. Elfrida later came to epitomise the image of the wicked stepmother in her relationship with Edgar's youngest child, Edward (the Martyr). All of these shenanigans caused Dunstan to counsel Edgar to change his ways. Perhaps as he passed from youth into adulthood he became less reckless, and in 973 Dunstan agreed to a major ceremony at Bath. The coronation had double significance. For the first time a Saxon king was crowned as king of all the English, a title used by previous monarchs but never as part of their coronation. Edgar was thus the first genuine king of England. At the same time Elfrida was also crowned, the first queen of the English. This ceremony has remained essentially the same in content ever since. Following the coronation, Edgar put on a display of force. His army marched along the Welsh border from Bath to Chester, showing his authority over the Welsh, whilst his fleet sailed through the Irish Sea, also demonstrating his subjugation of the Norse who still held power in that area at Dublin and on Man. At Chester eight kings of Wales and the north assembled to make their submission to him. A later chronicler suggested that these eight kings then rowed Edgar along the river Dee with him at the helm. Strong though that image is, it is unlikely. It is more probable that there was a ceremonial voyage along the Dee with Edgar at the helm, and the other kings in submission. The coronation and ceremony were immensely significant. Although Edgar's position had been achieved by his predecessors, he was able to capitalise on it and demonstrate his authority over all of Britain with the exception of Orkney. Not all monarchs were present, the most noticeable absentee being Owain Ap Hywel of Deheubarth, though his absence was due to domestic strife rather than lack of respect. Thorfinn Skull-Splitter was not present, but as he owed his allegiance to the Norwegian crown, he might be excused - although, interestingly, Magnus Haraldsson of Man and the Isles was present. The ceremony marked the end of a peaceful and prosperous reign, and it was fortunate that the English could not see ahead as Edgar's was the last reign of peace and harmony. The Saxon world would thereafter start to disintegrate and within less than a century be almost wiped away. Edgar "The Peacable", King of England is the 33rd great grandfather of the Molloys.

Edward the Martyr Born: c 962. Titles: King of the English. Crowned: Kingston-upon-Thames, 975. Ruled: July 975 March 978. 4 years. Married: Died: (Murdered): Corfe Castle, Dorset, 18 March 978, aged 16. Buried: Wareham Abbey, Dorset; later removed to Shaftesbury Abbey, Dorset. [What were believed to be Edward's relics were found during an archeological dig at Shaftesbury in 1931 and currently reside in the Midland Bank in Croydon.]   Edward the Martyr was the young son of Edgar and his first wife Athelfleda. Although he was the rightful heir there was opposition to his election as king, with much support for his half-brother Athelred (ll). Athelred was only seven at this time and evidently the ealdormen who wanted him as king, wanted the power that went with it. Edward was thirteen, but old enough not to be trampled over. He was a precocious and ungovernable youth given to temper tantrums, and he soon had considerable opposition amongst his council. For the superstitious there were other signs and portents. In the autumn of his election there was a bright comet in the sky, always an ill omen. In the following year there was famine across England, presumably the result of a harsh winter and a wet summer. Some may have seen this as a message from God of dissatisfaction with the reform of the monasteries which had been carried out with such zeal under Edgar’s reign. Those who had been opposed to the reform used this as an opportunity to attack the church, and many monasteries were pillaged. By the end of 976 lawlessness seems to have broken out across the land. Dunstan alone stood firm in support of the king and of his reforms. There is a wonderful story of how Dunstan demonstrated his authority when he called a meeting of leading councilors at Calne, in the year 978. They met in an upper room and during the meeting the floor gave way so that many of the councilors were killed or injured, all save Dunstan who was standing on the one rafter that remained intact. It was proclaimed a miracle. Even if it was deliberately engineered Dunstan was taking a severe risk. He was aged about seventy by then. That same year Edward was murdered. He was calling on his stepmother and half-brother at Corfe Castle in Dorset. As he arrived the household retainers went to greet him but then stabbed him to death as he dismounted from his horse. The attack had clearly been premeditated and before long Elfrida was implicated in the crime as the wicked stepmother. It is not likely that many missed Edward and his fits of rage, but within a decade people were saying miracles were occurring alongside his bones at Wareham, and Athelred declared him a saint and martyr. Edward the Martyr King of Englandis the 32nd great grand uncle of the Molloys. Their common ancestors are Edgar "The Peacable", King of England and his first wife Athelfleda.

Ethelred II 'The Unready'  Born: c 968 Titles: King of the English, Crowned: Kingston-upon-Thames, 4 April 978. Ruled: March 978-December 1013, February 1014 April 1016. 38 years. Married: (1) c 985, Elgiva (c963-1002), dau. Thored, ealdorman of Northumbria: 13 children; (2) 5 April 1002, Emma (c 985-1052), dau. Richard, duke of Normandy: 3 children. Died: London, 23 April 1016, aged 48. Buried: Old St Paul's Cathedral, London.   Athelred (Ethelred) is remembered colloquially and half-jokingly today as the Unready, although the nickname was really a clever pun on his name, athel "noble" and raed "counsel", meaning "noble counsel". Throughout his reign Athelred was ill advised and if he made his own decision, he was as likely to change his mind, hence the nickname, raed-less, or lacking counsel. He was a better administrator than history has given credit, but he was a hopeless king and leader. He was the son of Edgar and his second (or third) wife Elfrida. At the time of Edgar's death there were many who supported Athelred as the next king, but the witan elected his elder half-brother Edward. When Edward was murdered three years later, Athelred's supporters, who included his mother and the Mercian ealdorman Alfhere, ensured that Athelred came to the throne. He was still probably under ten, and Elfrida and Alfhere dominated the government of England. Alfhere had been the main opponent to Edward and led the anti-monastic movement, which flared up following the death of Edgar. Alfhere believed that the monasteries were becoming too rich and powerful too quickly and that they could control the shires. Alfhere was implicated in the murder of Edward. Interestingly it was he who translated Edward's body from its hasty burial at Wareham to Shaftesbury, where it was buried amongst great ceremony and talk of miracles. Alfhere remained the most powerful ealdorman until his death in 983. He succeeded in shaping Athelred's policy toward reducing the power of the monasteries, although Athelred later over-turned this. Alfhere also had to face the impact of the first Danish raids for thirty years, which marked the beginning of the end for the Saxon kingdom. When he died, Alfhere was not much loved, being regarded as something of a bully. After Alfhere's death Athelred endeavoured to exert his own authority and even his mother's considerable power waned, though she lived till 1002. There was a period in the late 980s when Athelred sought to reduce the power of the church, but he subsequently reverted to his father's interests and promoted the construction of new monasteries under the new order. He also endeavoured to update the laws of the country and reorganize local government. This culminated in the Wantage code of 997, which, compared to past law codes, showed an unprecedented willingness to accept local customs, especially those amongst the Danes of eastern England. Many of the odd and curious anomalies that we have in our customs and codes of conduct in this country were enshrined under this code. Had Athelred's reign been measured by his willingness and ability to reform and organize, he would have been remembered kindly, but his mettle was tested when the Danish raids returned and England was pushed to the limit. The raids began in a comparatively small way as early as 980 and continued through to 982. Most of the raids were in the south west, but Southampton was severely damaged and London was attacked and burned in 982. Raids ceased for the next few years and perhaps Athelred was lulled into a false sense of security, for in 987 they began again, once more in the south-west and then, in 991, a major battle at Maldon in Essex. The Danish leader Olaf Tryggvason outwitted the East Saxon ealdorman Beortnoth, and the Saxons were killed to a man. The first payment of danegeld, or what amounted to protection money, arose following this battle, a policy instigated at the suggestion of Sigeric, the archbishop of Canterbury, who was one of Athelred's poor advisers. Olaf used this ploy as he moved around the south and east, plundering and destroying and then extracting payment. In 994, after the Danes had invaded London, Athelred paid 16,000 pounds in danegeld, but this time on the basis that Olaf would accept Christianity and never again raid Britain. Olaf kept his promise. He used the money to strengthen his fleet and finance his bid for the kingship of Norway. But others who had made no such agreement superseded his command, and so the raids continued. Each year the danegeld increased until the riches of England were savagely reduced. In addition the monasteries were plundered and destroyed and with armies being kept mobilised for most of the year men were unable to harvest. The country grew poorer, the men weaker, and spirits lower. The men had no equivalent of Alfred or Edward (the Elder) or Athelstan to look to for leadership. Athelred had never been tested as a battle commander and he had no idea what to do. He also had to face desertion from amongst his own ealdormen, whose actions in fleeing the command of battle further weakened their men's morale. Athelred seemed powerless to punish them. Instead he shifted from one mad scheme to another, none of which worked and all of which reduced the country's morale further. At one point in 1009, he demanded that a whole new fleet be constructed, but he was unable to find sufficient able commanders and had no battle plans to meet the Danes in the waters they controlled. The fleet spent more time anchored off-shore than in battle, and once it moved into battle it was destroyed. Athelred did nothing to save it but left it to its fate. The venture was a disaster and drained the country's resources further. In 1002 Athelred married Emma, daughter of Richard, duke of Normandy. The marriage was almost certainly to create an alliance whereby Richard stopped the Danes using Normandy as a base for raiding southern England. Richard no doubt played his part, but the plan was another of Athelred's ineffective tactics. Probably his worst decision was the St Brice's Day massacre on 13 November 1002. He ordered the killing of every Dane who lived in England except the Anglo Danes of the Danelaw. It is unlikely that the edict was carried out to the letter, but there was fearful slaughter across southern England which left a bitter stain on Athelred's character. Even if the resident Danes had supported him previously, they now turned against him. The massacre brought back to English shores the Danish commander Swein who had accompanied Olaf on earlier missions. Legend has it that Swein's sister and her husband had been killed in the massacre and Swein returned to exact revenge. Swein's campaign lasted from 1003 to 1007 when Athelred agreed a peace treaty with him and paid over an immense danegeld of 30,000 pounds. Swein returned to Denmark, but new commanders took his place and the raids and slaughter continued. The next major enemy was Thorkell the Tall, who arrived with a major army in August 1009 and left a wave of destruction across southern England. The low point of this campaign was the murder of Alphege, the archbishop of Canterbury in 1012. Thorkell had not condoned the murder and he subsequently offered his services to help protect England. Athelred had to raise a new tax, the heregeld, to pay for Thorkell's army, but this band of mercenaries was more effective than the English army because it had a strong, sound leader. Nevertheless, the whole of England had now become a battlefield, and the English were prepared to submit. Swein read the signs correctly when he returned to England. He landed in the Humber in August 1013, and the Northumbrians immediately submitted, followed soon by the Danes of Danelaw. Athelred waited with Thorkell's fleet in the Thames off London, so Swein marched on Bath, where the Mercians and West Saxons capitulated. By December 1013 London collapsed and Athelred fled to Normandy. Swein died only three months later and Athelred was recalled, when Swein's son, Canute, returned to establish himself in Denmark. Athelred's return was conditional on that he governed "more justly than he had done in the past." Matters did not improve, however. Early in the fighting against Canute, in 1014 Athelred's eldest son and heir, Athelstan, was killed in battle. Early in 1015 Athelred executed the two leading thanes of the Danelaw, whom he regarded as traitors, which did not endear him to Mercia or the north. His son, Edmund, gained the support of the Danelaw, and when Canute returned later in 1015, England was divided and the armies refused to move against the Danes unless the king himself commanded them. By now, though, Athelred was dying. Although he was only forty-eight, he had lived longer than many of his predecessors and was worn out by the fighting. He died on 23 April 1016, leaving Edmund to continue to battle for survival. Ethelred II "The Unready" King of England is the 34th great grandfather of the Molloys.

Edmund II Ironside   Born: c 989. Titles: King of the English, Crowned: Old St Paul's Cathedral, April 1016. Ruled: April - November 1016. 6 months. Married: August 1015, Edith, widow of Sigeferth, of East Anglia: 2 children. Died: (Murdered): London, 30 November 1016, aged 27. Buried: Glastonbury Abbey.   Edmund was the second son of Athelred (II) and became the heir to the throne after the eldest son, Athelstan, fell in battle some time in 1014. Edmund had already done his share of fighting, and had proved himself valiant, but once the heir he became even more determined. Angered at the weakness of his father, who had already been expelled from England by Swein in 1013, only to return a few months later promising to rule strongly and wisely, Edmund carved out his own plan to recover England. There was some respite during 1014 when Cnut left England to gain the throne of Denmark, though Athelred used that time to exact retribution from those he believed had betrayed him. One of these was Sigeferth, a thane of East Anglia, who had been amongst the first to submit to Swein when he landed at Gainsborough in August 1013. Sigeferth was executed and his widow, Edith, imprisoned at Malmesbury. Edmund rescued Edith and married her. This action gained the support of the Danelaw of Mercia and the north, but divided Britain, with Athelred retaining support in the south. When Canute returned to England in September 10 15 only Edmund's army was prepared. Athelred's men would not fight unless led by the king but he was seldom available (he was increasingly ill) and his own ealdormen were always on the verge of desertion. Athelred died in April 1016 and Edmund was promptly declared king. There was no time for celebrations. Edmund and Canute's armies clashed at five major battles during the year. The outcome was rarely decisive, both sides claiming victory. Edmund succeeded in holding London against Canute's siege and he probably would have defeated the Danes at Sherstone had not one of his ealdormen (the ever-traitorous Eadric of Shropshire) tricked the Saxons into believing Edmund was dead. Canute defeated Edmund at Ashingdon, in Essex, on 18 October, but by this time both sides were battle-wear-y. One further engagement was fought near Deerhurst in Gloucester, at which point both parties agreed to negotiate. At the Treaty of Olney, signed at the end of October, Canute was granted Mercia and Northumbria, and Edmund remained in Wessex. Edmund returned to London. He had been seriously wounded at Ashingdon, and his continued fighting had not improved his health. Nevertheless his death, just one month later, still shocked the Saxon nation. There was talk of murder and the weight of evidence supports this. Later rumours of a particularly nasty disembowelling whilst on the privy have never been disproved. With his death Canute soon convinced the English to accept him as king. Edmund's sons were despatched from England, and other young Saxon princes were transferred to places of safety. Only one of them, Edmund's son Edward (the father of Edgar Atheling), would return.  Edmund II "Ironside" King of England is the 33rd great grandfather of the Molloys.

Edward III 'The Confessor' Born: c l004, Islip, Oxfordshire. Titles: King of England. Crowned: Winchester, 3 April 1043. Ruled: 8 June 1042-4 January 1066. 24 years. Married: 23 January 1045 at Winchester Cathedral, Edith (c I020-75) dau. of Earl Godwin of Wessex: no children. Died: Westminster, 4 January 1066, aged 61. Buried: Westminster Abbey   After the welcome death of Harthacnute, there was no surviving mate heir of Canute’s line. His cousin, Swein, had believed himself heir, but his entitlement was overridden. In Scandinavia, Canute's domain was overrun by Magnus of Norway whilst England saw the return of the Saxon dynasty descended from Egbert in the form of Edward, the only surviving son Of Athelred (the Unready) and his second wife, Emma, the daughter of Duke Richard of Normandy. Edward was half Norman and had spent most of his youth (since the age of nine) in exile in Normandy. He thus grew up favouring Norman customs and, never having expected to become king, was also a rather idle and dissolute man. Upon his accession he realised he had a kingdom divided between Saxons, Danes and Norse with powerful earls of all factions. It is to Edward's credit that he succeeded in governing despite these differences. Critics of Edward accuse him of being a vacillating and indecisive king, like his father, but this may have been a facade for a cunning tactician, because Edward succeeded in ruling for over twenty-three years amidst much popular support. The fact that he was prepared to make strong decisions is evident from the start of his reign, when he confiscated his mother's property because she retained control over much of the Treasury. Emma was the most powerful and probably the richest woman in England, being the widow of two previous kings (Athelred and Canute), but her support for Edward had been limited. In fact she seemed to have almost disowned her marriage to Athelred and had become a strong supporter of the Danish court. Although Edward dispossessed her she was not sent into exile but remained in England. Charges were brought against her of involvement in the death of her sons by her first marriage and in supporting the Danish king Magnus. She seems to have bought her way out of this, although the more colourful records state that a trial by ordeal was arranged. Emma purportedly walked over nine red-hot ploughshares unscathed and at this show of innocence Edward restored all her lands and property and begged her forgiveness. She lived on at Winchester where she died on 6 March 1052, aged about sixty-six.   The power base in England at this time was with Godwin, earl of Wessex, and his many sons. It was Godwin's position that secured Edward his kingship, as the English Danes had previously recognized Canute's nephew Swein as successor. Godwin had married first the daughter Of Swein (Canute's father) and after her death, Gytha, granddaughter of Swein's sister. Godwin regarded himself as a kingmaker (he had succeeded in raising Harold I to the throne and expected his son Harold II to become king in turn). To further cement this royal connection Godwin secured the marriage of Edward to Edith, the eldest child of Godwin and Gytha, in 1045. The marriage was apparently never consummated, and popular tradition has ascribed this to Edward's piety or effetism. Edward was to all intents married to the church. His single most lasting achievement was the construction of Westminster Abbey, which he financed personally and which was consecrated within a week of his death. Edward was not especially learned himself, but he loved to surround himself with knowledge and culture and encouraged scholarship throughout the country. With England benefitting from the first period of lasting peace for over seventy years, Edward's reign was the last glow of a Saxon golden age.   Edward had no reason to like Godwin, for all that he knew he needed his support. Godwin had been implicated in the murder of Edward's brother Alfred, who had been imprisoned and blinded in 1036/7 at the order of Harold 1. Furthermore Godwin had twice changed sides, having come to power under Canute and supported Harthacanute before switching to Harold 1, only to back Edward after Harold's death instead of the obvious successor Swein Ulfsson. Finally, the two had politically opposed ideals. Edward was primarily a Norman. He filled his court with Normans and appointed them to the most senior posts, whilst Godwin believed these posts should be given to the Saxon and Danish nobility. It was a conflict over Edward's favouritism to the Normans that led to an argument between Edward and Godwin in 1051. Edward, now feeling secure, banished Godwin and his sons, and despatched Edith to a convent. It was not a popular move as the Godwins were held in high regard by the English. It may have been partly to ameliorate this that Edward abolished the Danegeld in 1051, the oppressive tax that Athelred had levied to pay the Danish pirates.   During this power vacuum, William of Normandy visited Edward. William's father was Edward's cousin, and William knew that Edward had no formal heir and would not want the kingdom inherited by Godwin's sons. Although there is no record of any agreement at this time, it was later claimed that Edward then nominated William as his successor. However the following year Godwin and his sons invaded England. Edward was prepared to fight but the witan did not want a civil war. With bad grace, Edward pardoned Godwin and restored him and his sons to their earldoms. This made them more powerful than before. Godwin also secured his son Harold as senior amongst Edward's advisors, so much so that by 1053 Edward had more or less passed all administration over to Harold, leaving himself able to devote his energies to church matters and to hunting. Surprisingly during this period Edward supported the claim Of Malcolm III to the kingship of Scotland and gave his authority to an invasion of Scotland by Siward, earl of Northumbria, to depose Macbeth and place Malcolm on the throne. The initial onslaught was only partially successful but Malcolm eventually succeeded to the Scottish throne in 1058 and his friendship to the Saxons would prove valuable to Saxon exiles in future years.   In the meantime Harold Godwinson grew from strength to strength. It was he who led most of the assaults against the Welsh who had harried the border territories for many years. During these campaigns Harold demonstrated his superior soldiery and skills as a general. Harold was increasingly looking like a successor to Edward, which Edward did not want. Even though he may have promised the succession to William, the anti-Norman feeling in England made this too dangerous a course to promote. Edward was thus relieved when he learned in 1054 that his nephew, known as Edward the Exile, was alive and well in Hungary. An embassy was despatched to recall him to England. As the son of Edmund Ironsides he was the natural successor. His return was delayed but Edward finally arrived in England in August 1057. Within a few weeks he was dead, probably killed by order of Harold, though there is no evidence. Edward's succession plans were thwarted, although he now raised Edward the Exile's four-year old son, Edgar, as his heir (atheling). Edward was forced to acknowledge that should he die before Edgar came of age, Harold would be regent. As a result the final years of Edward's reign were ones of increasing uncertainty. Edward still favoured William of Normandy as his successor, whilst the English increasingly favoured Harold; at least as war-leader if Edward died before the young atheling came of age. There was another claimant, Harald Haadraada of Norway, who already ruled Orkney and the Western Isles, and believed England was his by right. In 1065, Godwin's son Tostig was deprived of his earldom in Northumbria following his inept and tyrannical rule, and was banished to Flanders. He soon threw in his lot with Harald Haadraada, so that by the end of 1065, when it was clear that Edward was dying, the English throne was under considerable threat and needed strong leadership. Thus, when Edward died in that first week of January 1066, it was Harold who became the last king of the Saxons. Edward King of England is the 33rd great grand uncle of the Molloys.

Harold II  Ruled: 5 January-14 October 1066. Edward the Confessors brother in law. Born: c 1022. Titles: King of the English Crowned: 6 January 1066 at Westminster Abbey. Ruled: 5 January-14 October 1066. Edward the Confessors brother in law. Married: (1) c 1045, Edith Swanneshals (Swan-neck): 6 children; (2) c IO66, Edith (Eadgyth) (b. c 1042), dau. Alfgar, earl of Mercia, and widow of Gruffydd ap Llywelyn of Wales: I child. Died: (In battle): 14 October 1066, aged 44. Buried: Battle, Sussex; remains later removed to Waltham Abbey, Essex.   Harold is romantically portrayed as "the last of the Saxons" in the novel of that title by Lord Lytton. In some ways his heroic death at the battle of Hastings was a last ditch stand defending the old order against tyrannical oppression. On the other hand Harold was not the lily-white champion of virtue; he was a violent man with a vicious temper. He was the son of Godwin, earl of Wessex, and inherited his father's title in 1053, having previously been earl of East Anglia. He was exiled from England along with his father and brothers in 1051 when Edward the Confessor quarrelled with Godwin and used that as an opportunity to rid himself of someone who was becoming too powerful. Godwin and Harold nevertheless invaded England the following year. Had the family not been so popular and powerful and held in such high esteem by the English, any other king might have tried them for treason (Godwin was probably responsible for the death of Edward's elder brother Alfred, let alone this bold affront to the English crown). Edward, however, forgave Godwin (albeit unwillingly) and restored him and his sons to their earldoms. After Godwin's death, Harold, who was the eldest son, became the senior earl, and increasingly took over the administration and government of England, whilst Edward involved himself more in church affairs. By 1064 Harold was designated "Duke of the English", tantamount to heir apparent. Harold had almost certainly instigated the mysterious death of Edward the Exile, the real heir to the throne who had returned to England in 1057. Harold maintained a vicious campaign against the Welsh prince Gruffydd Ap Llywellyn, whom he forced into submission first in 1057 and again in 1063, the latter campaign resulting in Gruffydd's death. Harold later married Gruffydd's widow, Edith, the daughter of the earl of Mercia, though Harold already had a wife, married according to the Danish law, also called Edith (known as Swan-neck), whom he truly loved and who bore him six children. Sometime in 1065 Harold was at sea in the English Channel when his ship was blown off course and he was driven on to the coast of Normandy. This has always been a curious episode, never fully explained. Harold purportedly agreed that Duke William would be Edward's successor and paid homage to William. Knowing Harold's character this was unlikely, and could easily have been invented by William later, when no one could disprove it. Whatever the circumstance, by the end of 1065 William, who had previously been made heir by Edward the Confessor, though again somewhat secretly, firmly believed he would be the next king of England. In November 1065 Tostig, Harold's brother and earl of Northumbria, was ejected from his earldom because of his callous misuse of authority. Harold attempted to mediate, but Tostig was forced to flee the country. During the winter he planned his invasion of England. On the night of January 4/5, 1066, King Edward died and Harold was proclaimed and crowned king. William of Normandy regarded this as treachery and he too prepared to invade. The first to attempt it was Tostig with a fleet from Normandy. In May 1066 he harried the southern coast of England and round as far as Lindsey in the east, where he was defeated and fled to Scotland. He appealed to his cousin Swein in Denmark who was prepared to offer him an earldom, but not support for an invasion, so Tostig made his way to the court of Harald Haadraada, the king of Norway, and the most fearsome Viking of them all. Harald was initially unsure, knowing the strong defences of England, but Tostig convinced him and through the summer the Norwegians prepared their fleet whilst William of Normandy prepared his. Harold used the period to strengthen England's coastal defences. In September Harald Haadraada sailed with a mighty fleet of some two hundred warships, stopping first at Orkney where he gathered more supplies and men. He sailed with the earls Paul and Erlend down the coast to the mouth of the Tyne where Tostig waited with a further force of men from Scotland and Man. This massive force continued down the coast of Northumbria, pillaging and destroying as it went. It was met at Fulford on 20 September by an English army under earls Morcar and Edwin which was defeated. York agreed to surrender and the invaders withdrew to Stamford Bridge to await negotiators. There, on 25 September, they were surprised by the army of Harold Godwinsson which had undertaken a forced march north. The battle that followed was a total victory for Harold. Both the Norwegian king and Tostig were killed. But Harold had no time to relish his success. Two days later the wind that had stopped William sailing changed and his invasion began. Harold was forced to march south again at full speed, and the two armies met at Senlac Hill, north of Hastings on 14 October. With hindsight Harold should have waited. To engage two major invasion forces at either end of the kingdom within one month required superhuman ability. The astonishing thing is that Harold almost won. The Normans' technical sophistication was of limited use against the Saxon shieldwall with which they protected the position. A retreat by the Breton forces encouraged a pursuit that exposed the English to a cavalry counter-attack, but the battle was decided by hard, attritional fighting. As dusk came on the lofted arrows were eroding the ranks of the Saxon axemen. Harold was not killed by an arrow in his eye, but he and his brothers died defending each other to the last. Had Harold been the victor, it is a fascinating exercise in alternative reality to consider what might have become of England. Two such great victories would have made Harold secure in his kingdom, seemingly invincible. He was not young, but there is no reason why he could not have reigned another twenty years or so. In that time, unless he changed his ways, the real Harold would have been revealed - the sly and devious son of Godwin. The Saxons might have continued to rule for another century. But such was not to be. All but one of Harold's sons lived into the 1080s and beyond, though we lose track of them before their deaths. Although the English initially rallied around the young atheling, Edgar, they soon capitulated to Duke William who ever after was known as William the Conqueror.

Edgar Atheling 1066 Anglo Saxons Helment (r.14 0ctober/early December 1066.} Edgar the Atheling was proclaimed king by the witan after the death of Harold II at Senlac Hill on 14 October 1066, though he was never crowned and submitted to William (1) eight weeks later. He was only about thirteen or fourteen years old. He was the grandson Of Edmund Ironside. His father, known as Edward the Exile, had been banished from England by Canute in 1016 when only a few months old. Rather than kill him on English soil, Canute's idea was to despatch him to Russia to be killed by the Viking Dukes of Novgorod. This did not happen. Instead Edward made his way to Hungary and the court of King Stephen, where he remained until in 1054 Edward the Confessor learned he was alive and summoned him back to England. He returned in 1057 with his young children, but within days had died, probably murdered by order of Harold. Edward raised his nephew's children, Edgar, Margaret and Christina and nominated the young Atheling as his heir. However he was too young at the time of Edward's death in January 1066 to defend the country against impending invasion, and his election as king after Harold's death was no more than a token of defiance. Edgar relied for his support upon Archbishop Stigand and upon Earls Edwin and Morcar and, when this weakened, Edgar was forced to submit to William at Berkhamstead in either late November or early December 1066. William treated Edgar well. He kept him in his custody eventually taking him back to his court in Normandy. However, Edgar joined in the rebellion of the earls Edwin and Morcar in 1068 and, though defeated, he fled to the court Of Malcolm III of Scotland. The next year Malcolm married Edgar's sister Margaret, and agreed to support Edgar in his attempt to claim the English crown. Edgar now made common cause with Swein, king of Denmark and nephew Of Canute, who believed he was the rightful king of England. Their combined forces invaded England in 1069. They captured York, but did not proclaim the independence of Northumbria. William marched on the north, devastating the land as he went. He paid the Danes to leave, whilst Edgar fled to Scotland. He remained in refuge there until 1072 when William reached a treaty with Malcolm, which included the exile of Edgar. Edgar eventually made his peace with William in 1074 but he never fully gave up his dreams of regaining the throne of England. He supported Robert, duke of Normandy, against William II in 1091 and again found himself seeking refuge in Scotland. He also supported his nephew, Edgar, in gaining the Scottish throne. In 1099 he set off on crusade, and was later taken prisoner at Tinchebrai in 1106 fighting for Duke Robert against Henry I. He returned to England where Henry pardoned him, and he retired to his country estate in Hertfordshire. His niece Edith (renamed Matilda) had married Henry I in 1100. Edgar is believed to have travelled to Scotland late in life, perhaps around the year 1120, and was still alive in 1125, but may have died soon after, in his early seventies. By then he was forgotten by most and is remembered now only as the "lost king" of England. Edgar "Atheling" King of England is the 31st great grand uncle of the Molloys. Their common ancestors are Edward "Atheling" Prince of England and Agatha Von Brunswick Princess of England.